Where microorganisms can be found…

Really, the question to ask is where microorganisms CANNOT be found. This is because microorganisms are ubiquitous on Earth and can be found thriving in a wide range of extreme environments that are hostile to most other forms of life. These extremophilic microorganisms have developed unique adaptations to survive and even thrive in conditions that are considered extreme by human standards. From scorching deserts to freezing polar regions, from acidic lakes to high-pressure ocean depths, microorganisms have colonized diverse and inhospitable habitats, showcasing their remarkable resilience and versatility. In this article, we will explore some of the extreme environments where microorganisms can be found on Earth.

…but first, how is this relevant to food microbiology you might be wondering? Well, food and especially processing parameters present some pretty inhospitable conditions for bacteria. For one, understanding physiological adaptation mechanisms of bacteria provides insightful clues as to how these same species survive and/or thrive in food and in the manufacturing environment and result in food spoilage or foodborne disease. Then, microorganisms from extreme environments could very well hold the key to solving many global challenges, not only in food microbiology, but in other areas too. So let’s take a look, just where can microorganisms be found…

• Hot springs and geothermal areas: Hot springs and geothermal areas are prime examples of extreme environments where microorganisms thrive. These areas are characterised by high temperatures, often above the boiling point of water, and extreme acidity or alkalinity. Microbes such as thermophiles, which are heat-loving microorganisms, are well adapted to these conditions. They can be found in hot springs, geysers, and volcanic vents, where they can withstand temperatures up to 122 °C (252 °F) and survive in highly acidic or alkaline environments. Some thermophiles, such as the famous bacterium Thermus aquaticus, have even been used in biotechnological applications, including the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, due to their ability to withstand high temperatures.

• Polar regions: The Arctic and Antarctic regions are known for their harsh, cold environments, with freezing temperatures, extreme winds, and prolonged periods of darkness. Yet, even in these conditions, microorganisms can be found thriving. Psychrophiles, or cold-loving microorganisms, have adapted to survive in these extreme cold environments. They are capable of functioning at sub-zero temperatures and can be found in ice, snow, and permafrost. These microorganisms play critical roles in nutrient cycling and ecosystem functioning in polar regions, and their ability to survive in extreme cold has important implications for astrobiology and the search for life on other icy bodies in the solar system.

• Deep sea and hydrothermal vents: The deep sea is another extreme environment where microorganisms have adapted to survive under high pressure, total darkness, and low nutrient availability. Deep-sea microorganisms, known as barophiles or piezophiles, can withstand pressures up to 1 000 times that of sea level and are found in the deepest trenches of the ocean. Hydrothermal vents, located along mid-ocean ridges, are particularly extreme environments where high-pressure, high-temperature, and chemically-rich conditions exist. These vents are home to diverse microbial communities that rely on chemosynthesis, a process where microbes use chemicals rather than sunlight to produce energy. These microbes, known as thermophilic or hyperthermophilic chemosynthetic bacteria, have evolved to survive in the extreme conditions of hydrothermal vents and play a crucial role in supporting complex ecosystems in these dark and inhospitable environments.

• Acidic and alkaline environments: Microorganisms have also adapted to thrive in extremely acidic or alkaline environments, where the pH is far outside the range of neutral conditions. For example, acidophiles are microorganisms that are capable of surviving in highly acidic environments, such as acid mine drainage sites, volcanic craters, and acidic lakes. These microorganisms have unique enzymes and membrane proteins that allow them to survive and reproduce in such hostile conditions. Similarly, alkaliphiles are microorganisms that thrive in highly alkaline environments, such as soda lakes, saline soils, and alkaline soils. They have adapted to tolerate high pH levels and often have specialized metabolic pathways to cope with the extreme alkaline conditions.

• Extreme dryness: Microorganisms have also been found in some of the driest places on Earth, deserts are known for their extreme aridity, with very limited water availability and high temperatures during the day, and extreme cold temperatures at night. Despite these harsh conditions, microorganisms have been found in desert environments, including hot deserts such as the Sahara in Africa and the Atacama Desert in South America, as well as cold deserts such as the Antarctic Desert. Microbes in deserts are well adapted to survive in environments with limited water, high salinity, and high UV radiation. Some microorganisms, such as cyanobacteria, are capable of surviving in a dormant state for extended periods of time, known as cryptobiosis, and can revive and start growing once favorable conditions return. Additionally, microorganisms in deserts play a crucial role in nutrient cycling, as they are responsible for fixing nitrogen and releasing it into the soil, which supports the growth of plants and other life forms in these extreme environments.

• High-altitude Mountains: High-altitude mountains, such as the Himalayas and the Andes, are known for their extreme cold, low oxygen levels, and high UV radiation. Despite these challenging conditions, microorganisms have been found thriving in these environments, even at altitudes above 6 000 metres where human survival is extremely difficult. Microbes in high-altitude mountains are often found in snow, ice, and rocks, and are capable of surviving in low-oxygen conditions by undergoing metabolic adaptations, such as increasing their production of antioxidant enzymes to counteract the damaging effects of high UV radiation. These microorganisms play a crucial role in weathering of rocks and nutrient cycling, and their ability to survive in these extreme environments has